Medical study places without entrance exam restrictions — in Europe and worldwide

Personally guided by Marcel Kloos, founder of Medschool Experts, from your first consultation to the start of your career.
Book a free consultation
  • The right university for you — and a secure placement
  • A study place abroad with no entrance exam, internationally recognised
  • Support with enrolment, preparation and finding accommodation
  • Support with your university transfer
  • Guidance all the way to your first job as a doctor
Quick survey · anonymous
What was the main reason your studies came to a halt?
One question, ten seconds. Your answers feed directly into our advising — and into the next analysis here in the magazine.
Thank you! Your submission has been received!
Oops! Something went wrong while submitting the form.
Anonymous. We use your answers internally only, to improve our advising — never shared with third parties.
Magazine

Studying Medicine at SSST in Sarajevo: Costs, Recognition

Studying Medicine at SSST in Sarajevo: Costs, Recognition

01.09.2026

14 min read Lesezeit

The Sarajevo School of Science and Technology, SSST for short, is a private university in the Bosnian capital. It was founded in 2004, and the connection to the British University of Buckingham has existed since that same year: external examiners from the United Kingdom review examination materials at least once a year, and several programmes lead to a British dual degree. The affiliated Sarajevo Medical School began operations in the 2014/2015 academic year and teaches human medicine entirely in English.

The key figures upfront: six years, twelve semesters, degree Doctor of Medicine. International students pay 13,200 EUR per academic year; applicants with Bosnian citizenship pay 7,900 EUR (SSST fee schedule, as of 2026); teaching materials and books are included. Selection is through entrance examinations in English, biology, chemistry, and physics, which can also be taken online; the programme begins in the winter semester. Because Bosnia and Herzegovina is not a member of the European Union, the degree is not automatically recognised in Germany: the competent state authority assesses equivalence under Section 3 of the Federal Physicians' Act (Bundesärzteordnung); if the outcome is negative, a knowledge test follows, after which Approbation is granted.

Last reviewed: August 2026

Sarajevo at a Glance

FeatureDetails (as of 2026)
InstitutionSarajevo School of Science and Technology (SSST), founded 2004
Medical facultySarajevo Medical School, operating since the 2014/2015 academic year
ProgrammesHuman medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, health sciences
Language of instructionEnglish
Standard duration – human medicine6 years, 12 semesters, degree Doctor of Medicine
Tuition – international13,200 EUR per academic year, teaching materials included
Tuition – Bosnia and Herzegovina7,900 EUR per academic year
SelectionEntrance examinations in English, biology, chemistry, and physics; online possible
Programme startWinter semester, one intake per year
Living costsapproximately 600 EUR per month
Recognition in GermanyEquivalence assessment under Section 3 of the Bundesärzteordnung, otherwise knowledge test

This overview answers the questions that arise first in a consultation. The location's profile can be summed up in one sentence: an English-language medical programme with no numerus clausus, subject-based selection via four examinations, low cost of living, but tuition in the upper range and a degree from a non-EU country. Anyone who knows these four points can weigh the decision clearly.

University and Hospital

SSST was founded in 2004 as a private university with English as the language of instruction and has since been oriented towards British standards. The cooperation with the University of Buckingham means that external examiners from the United Kingdom review assessment materials annually. One point needs to be clarified, because it is frequently confused: the dual degrees with Buckingham apply to the programmes in computer science, business, political science, and English. The Doctor of Medicine is a degree awarded by the SSST itself, and it is this degree that matters in any recognition procedure.

The Sarajevo Medical School has been operating since the 2014/2015 academic year. It is registered in the World Directory of Medical Schools and is listed by the Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research; according to the institution's own information, it is one of only two medical faculties in the country listed in that directory. For any future recognition procedure, this listing is the foundation on which authorities can build.

Pre-clinical teaching takes place in the laboratories on campus. Clinical training is conducted at the Clinical Centre of the University of Sarajevo, known as KCUS, the largest hospital in the country: founded in 1894 as a regional hospital, today with more than 3,500 staff and around 37 clinics and institutes according to its own figures. A further 14 facilities from primary, secondary, and tertiary care are part of the SSST's teaching network. This breadth is the genuine advantage of this location: you see not just one hospital, but an entire care system.

Which programmes are offered, and in which language?

ProgrammeLanguageDegree and duration
Human medicineEnglishDoctor of Medicine, 12 semesters
DentistryEnglishProfessional qualifying degree; duration and ECTS we clarify individually
PharmacyEnglishProfessional qualifying degree; duration and ECTS we clarify individually
Health sciencesEnglishBachelor programmes, including physiotherapy and radiology

All teaching is in English, from lectures and seminars to course materials and examinations. A certificate of adequate English proficiency is required, and English is also one of the four examination subjects in the admissions process. Solid school-level English will carry you through the first weeks; medical terminology is new for everyone, including domestic students.

Bosnian, however, is also necessary – from the third year onwards. At KCUS and the other teaching institutions, patients speak Bosnian, Croatian, or Serbian. Without basic language skills, every patient history is a translation exercise. Anyone who starts learning the language alongside their studies in the first year will find the clinical phase considerably easier.

How does the admissions process work?

SSST selects on the basis of subject knowledge, not grades. There is no numerus clausus. Testing covers four subjects: English, biology, chemistry, and physics. According to the university, the entrance examinations are held from April to September and begin at 10 o'clock each day; participation is generally possible entirely online, so you do not need to travel to Bosnia and Herzegovina. The content is upper secondary school level; no university knowledge is required.

Entry is not limited to those with a general university entrance qualification (Abitur). The Fachhochschulreife (applied university entrance qualification) is also accepted, and a completed vocational qualification in a healthcare field – such as nursing – can also open the door. This is not automatic: the university evaluates every educational background individually. Whether your starting point is sufficient is something we assess in advance in a free consultation.

Registration, application, and scheduling for the four examinations are organised by Medschool Experts. We handle the paperwork; you concentrate on subject preparation. We prepare you specifically for each of the four papers – biology, chemistry, and physics as well as the English section and the interview in which your motivation counts. What I notice time and again in preparation is always the same: almost no one fails on the subject content; what is underestimated is the breadth. Bringing four subjects up to examination level at the same time is work that needs to be planned for.

What does the programme cost?

ProgrammeInternational per yearBosnia and Herzegovina per year
Human medicine13,200 EUR7,900 EUR
Dentistry13,200 EUR7,900 EUR
Pharmacy13,200 EUR7,900 EUR

The figures come from the SSST fee schedule. Teaching materials and books are included in the tuition, so no additional costs arise for textbooks. For living costs in Sarajevo, budget 600 EUR per month, covering rent, food, local transport, and insurance. This allows a total cost calculation – which we treat as an estimate giving the order of magnitude, not an exact figure.

Item (estimate)Per yearOver six years
Tuition13,200 EUR79,200 EUR
Living costs at 600 EUR/month7,200 EUR43,200 EUR
Total20,400 EUR122,400 EUR

Around 122,400 EUR over the full length of the programme – that is the honest order of magnitude. Anyone living frugally and sharing accommodation will end up below that figure; anyone living centrally and alone will end up above it. For comparison, we have placed the human medicine tuition alongside several other locations in our series.

LocationTuition per yearRecognition in Germany
SSST Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina13,200 EUREquivalence assessment, otherwise knowledge test
IUS Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina13,750 EUREquivalence assessment, otherwise knowledge test
Semmelweis Budapest, Hungary8,850 EUR (English)Automatic under Annex V of the Directive
Charles University Pilsen, Czech Republic8,000 EURAutomatic under Annex V of the Directive
Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia6,500 EURAutomatic under Annex V of the Directive

The second Sarajevo location is the International University of Sarajevo, which we describe in detail in our article on studying medicine at IUS in Sarajevo. Both institutions are close in price but differ considerably in their admissions process. And one more financial point needs to be stated plainly: because Bosnia and Herzegovina lies outside the European Union, study abroad grants (Auslands-BAföG) apply there only to a limited extent and generally not for the full duration of study. More realistic are combinations of personal funds, educational loans, and scholarships. We go through which building blocks suit you together.

{{cta}}

How is the programme structured?

StageYear of studyFocus
Pre-clinical1 to 2Anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, histology, embryology in the campus laboratories
Clinical stage3 to 5Internal medicine, surgery, paediatrics, gynaecology, neurology, psychiatry at KCUS and 14 further facilities
Practical year6Predominantly practical training, comparable in structure to the German Praktisches Jahr
Degreeafter 12 semestersDoctor of Medicine from the Sarajevo School of Science and Technology

The structure follows the pattern you would recognise from Germany: first the foundational subjects, then clinical training, finally a practical year at the bedside. The difference lies in group size and early patient contact. Because cohorts are small, you are at the bedside yourself sooner in the clinical rotations, rather than standing in the third row watching.

Electives can also be completed in Germany during semester breaks. Whether they will be recognised later is decided by the authority responsible for your German medical licence (Approbation). Ask in advance, not after the fact – that avoids an unpleasant surprise in the final year.

Where can you work as a doctor with this degree?

CountryPath to professional authorisation
GermanyEquivalence assessment under Section 3 of the Bundesärzteordnung, otherwise knowledge test, then Approbation
AustriaNostrification at a medical university, then entry in the physicians' register
SwitzerlandRecognition procedure for degrees from third countries, generally with an additional examination
Rest of EUNo automatic recognition; national procedure for third-country degrees in each case
United KingdomRegistration with the General Medical Council, generally via the PLAB examinations
USAECFMG certification and USMLE, with requirements regarding institutional accreditation

The most important point first: Bosnia and Herzegovina is not a member of the European Union. The automatic recognition of medical training certificates is governed by Directive 2005/36/EC via Annex V, in the version of Delegated Decision (EU) 2023/2383 of 23 May 2023, applicable since 9 October 2023; the physician is listed there under number 5.1.1. Bosnian degrees are not listed in this Annex. For Germany, the path therefore runs via Section 3 of the Bundesärzteordnung: the competent state authority assesses whether your training is equivalent to the German medical degree. If the outcome is positive, Approbation follows without any further examination. If it is negative, you sit the knowledge test – an oral-practical examination covering the content of the German state examination – and then receive Approbation. During this phase, many graduates are already working in hospitals under a temporary licence to practise.

For the United States a separate logic applies. Since 1 January 2023, ECFMG certification has required that the medical school be accredited by an agency recognised by the World Federation for Medical Education. As of August 2026, no agency from Bosnia and Herzegovina appears in the WFME's list of recognised agencies; the German ASIIN and AMSE are also not listed there. Anyone seriously planning the US route should clarify this point before applying. How the German procedures work in detail is set out in our article on the recognition of foreign qualifications in the healthcare professions.

Dentist, pharmacist, psychologist, veterinarian: the legal position for each profession

Dentist. SSST offers dentistry as an English-language programme with a professionally qualifying degree; tuition of 13,200 EUR per year matches that of human medicine. Directive 2005/36/EC lists the dentist in Annex V under number 5.3.2, but the listing applies only to degrees from member states. For a Bosnian degree, the competent state authority assesses equivalence under the Zahnheilkundegesetz; if the outcome is negative, a knowledge test follows, after which Approbation as a dentist is granted.

Pharmacist. Pharmacy is part of the SSST's programme, also in English and at the same fees. The pharmacist is listed in Annex V of Directive 2005/36/EC under number 5.6.2, and here too automatic recognition applies only to training certificates from EU member states. A degree from Bosnia and Herzegovina undergoes an equivalence procedure under national law – in Germany, under the Approbationsordnung für Apotheker.

Psychologist. Psychology and psychotherapy are not harmonised under EU law and do not appear in Annex V of Directive 2005/36/EC. Each member state regulates access and professional titles independently; in Germany this is governed by the Psychotherapeutengesetz and its associated Approbationsordnung. A degree obtained abroad is therefore always assessed individually, regardless of whether it was earned within the Union. This path is not offered at SSST in the medical field.

Veterinarian. Veterinary medicine is not part of the SSST's programme. Legally, the veterinarian is listed in Annex V of Directive 2005/36/EC under number 5.4.2, with the same basic rule: automatic recognition within the Union, case-by-case assessment for degrees from third countries. Anyone wishing to study veterinary medicine will find a better fit at another location in our series, and we say so openly in a free consultation.

Career paths after graduation

After the Doctor of Medicine and a completed recognition procedure, specialist training in Germany is open to you. The responsible body is the state medical association (Landesärztekammer) of the federal state in which you work; the training periods and content are governed by its specialist training regulations. At this point nothing distinguishes you from someone who studied in Germany: the path there was longer; the destination is the same.

Specialist training in Austria or Switzerland is also realistic; both countries operate their own procedures for third-country degrees. Within the rest of the EU you need a national procedure in each case, because automatic recognition applies only to Union degrees. Anyone wishing to go to the United Kingdom goes via the General Medical Council and generally via the PLAB examinations. What options a medical degree opens up worldwide and what they depend on is set out in our article on career paths with an EU medical degree.

Outside the clinic there are paths that are frequently underestimated: research, public health, the pharmaceutical industry, medical journalism, healthcare management. An English-language degree from an international cohort is a good starting point for these, because you are already accustomed to professional language and literature in English. This side effect only becomes apparent years later – but then very clearly.

Lateral entry, transfers, and switching back to Germany

This location is particularly well suited to three groups: school leavers whose grades are not sufficient for a German study place, applicants with a Fachhochschulreife, and people with a completed qualification in a healthcare field who want to take the step towards becoming a doctor. In all three cases the same applies: the university decides individually, and we review your documents in advance in a free consultation.

Switching back to a German faculty is possible but not automatic. SSST provides a complete record of your examinations and credits; the decision on recognition rests with each German institution individually, and free places in higher semesters are rare. There is no entitlement. My clear recommendation is therefore to plan from the outset in such a way that you can also complete your studies in Sarajevo. How recognition and deadlines work is explained in detail in our article on switching back to Germany.

Living in Sarajevo: city, distances, costs

Sarajevo has approximately 275,000 inhabitants in the urban area and lies in a valley basin in the Dinaric Alps. Ottoman mosques, Austro-Hungarian administrative buildings, and post-war architecture stand side by side in a small space; the historic centre is the Baščaršija with its workshops and coffeehouses. The mountains surrounding the city are reachable in less than an hour and offer hiking and skiing areas right on the doorstep.

Costs are well below German levels. A one-bedroom apartment outside the city centre costs 552 KM – approximately 282 EUR per month; in the centre it is 813 KM or approximately 416 EUR; a monthly public transport pass costs 60 KM, approximately 31 EUR (Numbeo, as of 7 August 2026). Overall, approximately 600 EUR per month covers rent, food, local transport, and insurance. Rooms in shared flats and small rental apartments near campus are typical, often arranged through students in higher years. At the start of semester the choice thins out because everyone is searching at the same time. Arriving two to three weeks early yields more options. An overview of budgets at other locations can be found in our comparison of living costs during medical study in Europe.

The airport is on the edge of the city; connections to Germany, Austria, and Switzerland are short, and a weekend at home is feasible. What I appreciate about Sarajevo is its manageability: the international student community is small, but you know each other after a few weeks. English gets you quite a long way in everyday life; a few words of Bosnian take you considerably further, especially outside the city centre.

Who is this location right for?

SSST is right for you if you want to study in English, prefer a subject-based entrance examination to a grade cut-off, and can secure the financing for six years. It is also right for you if you come from a healthcare profession and are looking for a path that takes your prior training seriously. And it is right for you if small cohorts and early patient contact matter more to you than the name of a large faculty.

The location is less suitable if you want to study as cheaply as possible, or if you depend on a degree that is valid across the entire Union without further procedure. In that case the EU locations in our series are the better choice, and we say so plainly in the consultation.

My assessment: Sarajevo is a good location for people who consciously take the longer path and can plan for it. The recognition procedure under Section 3 of the Bundesärzteordnung is not an obstacle but a regulated step with clear rules; anyone who factors it in from the outset will encounter no surprises later. We have a suitable partner university for almost every situation, and whether it is Sarajevo or somewhere else is best established directly: arrange a free consultation.

The author's view

I studied dentistry in Sofia from 2015 to 2021, in English, far from home, and in a cohort where everyone knew each other within a short time. Much of what students from Sarajevo tell me I therefore know from personal experience: the first months when the technical language costs more energy than the content itself, the moment in the third year when both come together, and the realisation that a small cohort is worth more than any ranking.

What convinces me about SSST is the selection via four specialist examinations. Anyone who brings biology, chemistry, physics, and English up to examination level has demonstrated that they can carry a medical degree, and that says more than a decimal place in an Abitur grade. Add to that the clinical breadth: the Clinical Centre of the University of Sarajevo, with more than 3,500 staff, is the largest hospital in the country, and 14 further facilities are part of the network.

To be honest: the cost is the point that needs to be named openly. 13,200 EUR per year amounts to 79,200 EUR in tuition fees alone over six years; adding living costs, my estimate puts the total at around 122,400 EUR. In comparison with other locations in our series, that is a lot of money, and the low cost of living in Sarajevo only partially compensates for it. This sum needs to be worked out and secured before applying, or the sixth year will become a problem.

Today I run Medschool Experts in Bern as my main occupation and speak every week with young people who are facing exactly this decision. What I tell them applies to Sarajevo as well: a study place abroad is a distinct, clearly regulated path into the medical profession. It requires an additional recognition procedure here, and it leads to the German medical licence (Approbation) just the same.

Summary

  • The Sarajevo Medical School at SSST teaches human medicine entirely in English, six years and twelve semesters; the degree is the Doctor of Medicine.
  • Tuition is 13,200 EUR per academic year for international students, 79,200 EUR in total; teaching materials and books are included.
  • Selection is through entrance examinations in English, biology, chemistry, and physics, held from April to September and possible online; there is no numerus clausus.
  • In addition to the general university entrance qualification, the Fachhochschulreife and a completed healthcare qualification are also eligible for entry, subject to individual assessment in each case.
  • Bosnia and Herzegovina is not an EU member: the state authority assesses equivalence under Section 3 of the Bundesärzteordnung; otherwise a knowledge test follows, then Approbation.
  • Living costs are approximately 600 EUR per month; our estimate puts the total at around 122,400 EUR over six years.

Conclusion

SSST has a clear profile: English-language instruction, subject-based selection, small cohorts, and clinical training at the country's largest hospital. Tuition is in the upper range, living costs are in the lower range, and the degree comes from a non-EU country, which means an additional procedure. Anyone who knows this and plans for it receives a regulated path into the medical profession.

The decision ultimately comes down to two questions: does the financing hold for six years, and are you prepared to factor in the recognition procedure after graduation? Both can be worked through carefully before anything is submitted. We look at your situation and tell you openly whether Sarajevo or another location is the better fit; simply arrange a free consultation.

Further reading

Frequently Asked Questions about Studying Medicine in Sarajevo

Do I need a specific grade average for the Sarajevo Medical School?

No, there is no numerus clausus at SSST. A university entrance qualification and proof of adequate English proficiency are required. What counts is your performance in the four entrance examinations. Your Abitur grade therefore plays a considerably smaller role than when applying for a place in Germany.

Which subjects are tested in the entrance examination?

The examination covers English, biology, chemistry, and physics. Content is at upper secondary school level; university knowledge is not required. Bringing four subjects up to examination level at the same time is still work. We prepare you specifically for each of the four parts, in subject matter as well as language.

Can I sit the entrance examination from Germany?

Yes. The examinations can generally be taken entirely online; travel to Sarajevo is not required. The university holds the examinations from April to September, beginning at ten o'clock each day. We handle the scheduling for you so you can concentrate on preparation.

Does the Fachhochschulreife or a nursing qualification open the path to SSST?

Both can serve as a route in. In addition to the general university entrance qualification, SSST accepts the Fachhochschulreife and a completed vocational qualification in a healthcare field. This is not automatic, as the university assesses every educational background individually. We assess how your situation looks in a free consultation beforehand.

What does the medical degree at SSST cost in total?

Tuition is 13,200 EUR per academic year – 79,200 EUR over six years. Teaching materials and books are included. Adding living costs of approximately 600 EUR per month, our estimate puts the total at around 122,400 EUR for the full period of study. This sum needs to be secured before you apply.

Why do Bosnian students pay less?

SSST scales its fees by nationality. Citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina pay 7,900 EUR per year for human medicine; international students pay 13,200 EUR. The same scale applies to dentistry and pharmacy. The course content, groups, and examinations are identical for both categories; it is purely a fee model.

What living costs should I expect in Sarajevo?

Approximately 600 EUR per month covers rent, food, local transport, and insurance. A one-bedroom apartment outside the city centre costs around 282 EUR; in the centre around 416 EUR; a monthly transport pass costs approximately 31 EUR. The exact amount depends on how centrally you live and whether you share accommodation.

Can the programme be funded with study abroad grants (Auslands-BAföG)?

Bosnia and Herzegovina lies outside the European Union, so Auslands-BAföG applies there only to a limited extent and generally not for the full duration of study. More realistic are combinations of personal funds, educational loans, and scholarships. The low living costs in Sarajevo provide noticeable relief to the budget. We discuss which combination suits you in a free consultation.

Is all teaching at the Sarajevo Medical School conducted in English?

Yes. Lectures, seminars, course materials, and examinations are consistently in English. A certificate of adequate English proficiency is required, and English is also one of the four examination subjects in the admissions process. Solid school-level English will carry you through the first weeks; medical terminology is new for everyone in the cohort. There is no German-language programme at the institution.

Do I need Bosnian for patient contact?

Yes, from the third year of study at the latest. At the Clinical Centre of the University of Sarajevo and the other teaching facilities, patients speak Bosnian, Croatian, or Serbian. Without basic language skills, every patient history is a translation exercise. Anyone who begins a language course alongside their studies in the first year will find the clinical stage considerably easier.

How is the programme at SSST structured?

Six years, i.e. twelve semesters. The first two years form the pre-clinical stage with anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, histology, and embryology in the campus laboratories. From the third year onwards comes clinical training. The final year is predominantly practical and corresponds in structure to the German Praktisches Jahr.

Is the SSST degree recognised in Germany?

Not automatically, because Bosnia and Herzegovina is not a member of the European Union. The competent state authority assesses the equivalence of your training under Section 3 of the Bundesärzteordnung. If the outcome is positive, Approbation follows directly. Otherwise you sit the knowledge test and then also receive the German Approbation. The faculty's entry in the World Directory of Medical Schools is the basis for this.

When does the programme start and when should I get in touch?

The programme begins in the winter semester; there is no second entry point in summer. The entrance examinations fall between April and September beforehand. Because there is only one intake per year, an early start pays off: as soon as your decision is made, we take over registration, scheduling, and preparation. Missing one intake means waiting a full year.

Your question · answer by email
Still have a question?
Write it here. I'll respond by email and, if it helps others, include it anonymously in the Q&A for this article.
Thanks — your question has arrived. You will get an answer by email, usually within two working days.
That didn't work, unfortunately. Please try again or contact us using the contact form.
We use your email address solely to reply to your question. No sharing with third parties, no newsletter.
★★★★★

What students say about Medschool Experts

Over 500 placements at more than 25 partner universities across 10+ countries. Read independent student reviews on Trustpilot.

Read reviews on Trustpilot

About the author

Marcel Kloos

Swiss-licensed dentist and founder of Medschool Experts

Marcel Kloos founded Medschool Experts while studying abroad; since then, over 500 study places have been secured. The Stuttgart-born dentist studied dentistry from 2015 to 2021 in Sofia and holds a Swiss dental licence.

Today he lives in Bern and runs Medschool Experts full-time as its owner.

More articles worth reading

Why Students Transfer from Medical University of Varna — Your Options

Study Transfer

13 Min. Lesezeit

Why Students Transfer from Medical University of Varna — Your Options

Marcel Kloos

Marcel Kloos

11.09.2026

Read article
Why Students Transfer from Medical University of Warsaw — Your Options

Study Transfer

14 Min. Lesezeit

Why Students Transfer from Medical University of Warsaw — Your Options

Marcel Kloos

Marcel Kloos

11.09.2026

Read article
Why Students Transfer from Masaryk University Faculty of Medicine — Your Options

Study Transfer

13 Min. Lesezeit

Why Students Transfer from Masaryk University Faculty of Medicine — Your Options

Marcel Kloos

Marcel Kloos

11.09.2026

Read article
View all articles
Portrait photo of Ahmad, Medschool Experts client

Ahmad

Portrait photo of Sabrina, Medschool Experts client

Sabrina

Portrait photo of Rami, Medschool Experts client

Rami

Portrait photo of Noah, Medschool Experts client

Noah

500+ students placed.
Now it's your turn!

No daydreaming, no empty promises. Just a clear plan — for the start of your medical degree.

Book a free consultation
  • 40 minutes, no obligation